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Recent neuroimaging studies aimed at finding the neural correlates of basic emotions in music highlighted the role of the auditory cortex in the superior temporal gyrus, the cingulate cortex, the precuneus, and structures belonging to the reward circuit and limbic system, such as the ventral striatum and the insula, for the perception and induction of happy, joyful music (when compared with neutral or sad music Mitterschiffthaler et al., 2007 Brattico et al., 2011 Park et al., 2013). It has been suggested that basic emotions experienced in a musical context are weaker than the same emotions occurring in real life and lack the action tendencies typical of basic emotions as well as the “universal” physiological reactions reproduced in individuals of any age and from different cultural background ( Scherer, 2004 Zentner et al., 2008). Consequently, the basic emotions induced by music do not coincide with the basic emotions triggered by prototypical life events (loss, threat, etc. Basic emotions are characterized by their adaptive or utilitarian function for the behavioral adjustment of individuals to events ( Ekman, 1999). Complex emotions such as love, pride, and jealousy are instead less reproducible by music ( Juslin and Laukka, 2004). Adult listeners as well as school-age children are able to perceive and recognize basic emotions expressed by music, particularly happiness and sadness ( Krumhansl, 1997 Peretz et al., 1998 Juslin and Laukka, 2004 Baumgartner et al., 2006 Koelsch, 2010 Nieminen et al., 2012). Music can convey emotions in a relatively systematic manner within a given music (sub)culture. We also obtained novel evidence for functional differences in the limbic system associated with musical expertise, by showing enhanced liking-related activity in fronto-insular and cingulate areas in musicians. These results discern the brain structures responsible for the perception of sad and happy emotions in music from those related to musical enjoyment. The cortico-thalamo-striatal reward circuit and motor areas were more active during liked than disliked music, whereas only the auditory cortex and the right amygdala were more active for disliked over liked music. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recordings were obtained while subjects listened to and rated the excerpts.
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Based on a listening test, we selected the most representative 18 sec excerpts of the emotions of interest for each individual participant. To these aims, 13 musicians and 16 non-musicians brought to the lab their most liked and disliked musical pieces with a happy and sad connotation. We further investigated whether musical expertise modulates the neural activity during affective listening of music. Here we aimed at discerning the neural correlates of sadness or happiness in music as opposed those related to musical enjoyment. Indeed, in music, like in other arts, sad and happy emotions might co-exist and be distinct from emotions of pleasure or enjoyment. 8Experimental Psychology Unit, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, GermanyĮmotion-related areas of the brain, such as the medial frontal cortices, amygdala, and striatum, are activated during listening to sad or happy music as well as during listening to pleasurable music.7Department of Music, Durham University, Durham, UK.6Cicero Learning, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.5Neuroscience of Emotion and Affective Dynamics Lab, University of Geneve, Geneve, Switzerland.4Department of Music, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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3Advanced Magnetic Imaging Centre, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland.2Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.1Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University and Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg (RAMA), Aarhus, Denmark.B.V.Elvira Brattico 1,2,3 *, Brigitte Bogert 2, Vinoo Alluri 4,5, Mari Tervaniemi 2,6, Tuomas Eerola 7 and Thomas Jacobsen 8